Learning is an active process that should be sustainable,
immersive and productive. Because learning is highly dependent on the learner’s
desire, the teacher is more than the deliverer of knowledge. An effective
learning method will even elicit interest in a subject that was deemed
difficult or boring (Graff,
2011). However, students gain greater benefits
if they have a need to learn, with a clearly defined result or goal (Horton,
2012). Educators have employed learning models for years, even before the
advent of eLearning. Yet, successful instructional design requires the use of
learning theories and objectives (Horton, 2011). Too many times teachers and educators are asked to simply
take their current course and turn it into a digitally delivered class. The
idea of just dumping information into this format often does not take into
consideration the models of learning that have been employed in the classroom.
Also, the educational field is likely to produce new learning models as the
demand for online learning increases and universities embrace eLearning. Competition
for students will likely increase as more courses are offered in an open format
– called massive open online courses or MOOCs (such as Coursera and Canvas).
Instructional Design Models for eLearning focus on helping
instructors make successful courses. Although it is possible to adhere to only one
model, designers may actually use a combination. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction,
Keller’s motivational model of ARC, Wiggins McTighe’s Understanding by Design,
and Anderson’s and Krathwohl’s Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy are options to
consider. The best design will
support and align with a teacher’s learning model and create the enthusiasm
needed to provide successful online learning. Because most of the earlier design models were established
before eLearning, designers of online courses must alter the models to fit this
new technology (Horton, 2012).
Some schools develop their own instruction design models
for online courses, such as California State University, Humboldt (Van Duzer,
2002). In this model, effective instructional design is broken down
into five criteria: (1) Interaction
and communication, (2) course goals,
(3) learning objectives, (4) multi-modal activities, and (5) critical thinking and problem solving activities (Van Duzer, 2002). Within each of these
categories, educators evaluate course design as exemplary, effective, or
baseline (Van
Duzer, 2002). For the first criterion, courses that offer only a limited
opportunity for communication between students and instructors and content
would be deemed baseline (Van
Duzer, 2002). Exemplary courses would offer many
opportunities. The goals of the
course constitute the second criterion used to judge an exemplary online
course, with those that are clearly defined and aligned with learning objectives
to be rated the highest (Van
Duzer, 2002).
If a course is designed without an
understanding of the ultimate goal, it will be less effective. The third criterion addresses the
learning objectives of the course, which should be identified and supported
with learning activities. The
fourth criterion includes evaluating the multi-modal activities. These include multiple activities to
enhance the learning experience by supplying visual, textual, kinesthetic and
auditory activities. The final criterion
analyzes critical thinking and problem solving activities. These types of activities push students
to use their newly acquired information or skills to solve problems (Van Duzer, 2002).
Online course design can be developed around Gagne’s
Nine Events of Instruction, which has been utilized by the University of
Florida’s Center for Instructional Technology and Training (University
of Florida, 2013).
Even though Gagne’s model was
first published in 1965, instructors can effectively use it to design online
courses. The nine events are steps
that are based on effective learning:
(1) Gain attention, (2) inform learners of objectives, (3) stimulate recall of prior learning, (4) present the content, (5) provide “learning guidance,” (6) elicit performance (practice,) (7) provide feedback, (8) assess performance, and (9) enhance retention and transfer to
the job (University of Florida, 2013). When applying these steps to an online course, a designer has
options available to traditional classes as well as to eLearning classes.
One
of the first steps for effective online learning is to capture your audience,
in this case, your students (University of Florida, 2013). Not addressed in Gagne’s model, and yet highly important for
online courses, is the ease of navigation through the course, and especially an
effective homepage. This would be
part of the step titled “gain attention.” In fact, all of the steps listed in
Gagne’s events of instruction could be assessable from the homepage, giving the
online course structure and ease of use. For an exemplary course delivered online, the student’s
ability to use the Internet and technology needs to be addressed. Although most
students have familiarity with computers and mobile devices, easy access to an
explanation of the necessary skills should be included and sufficient time to
master these before the official start of the class.
An
example of a homepage on the Canvas platform identifies key elements (Canvas Network, 2013). The use of a visual start button in this homepage is an
effective way to guide students through the learning process and avoid
confusion from the initial opening of the course. The left side bar clearly
identifies key resources for the course, including the “home” button,
announcements, discussions, and modules. A simple outline of things to do are
listed on the right, and if completed, checked off. While this is not outlined
in Gagne’s list it does fulfill the requirements listed in the California State
University list to promote interaction and communication (Van Duzer, 2002). The homepage is the first step to gaining a learner’s
attention. Even before enrolling in an online course, the description is
paramount. Massive open online courses offer a short explanation and video from
the instructor. For example, the MOOC, coursera.org uses the format of a video
introduction and text written by the professor about the course to gain
attention. Also, the necessary prerequisites if any should be listed for optimal
success. Other universities use homepages to grasp the attention of students
from the initial stages.
Step
two in Gagne’s list is to inform the learner of the course objectives (University
of Florida, 2013). This step provides direction and the need for learning new
information. If the objectives meet
the student’s need, they will be more focused and goal oriented. These can be
listed on the homepage, but should also be included in each activity. The third
step in the learning process is to stimulate recall of prior learning (University
of Florida, 2013). This addresses the theory of
constructivism, in that students build upon information they already have
acquired (Horton, 2012). Every
learner approaches a course with some prior understanding that often lends to a
collaborative effort of shared knowledge. Discussion boards provide this
avenue, as well as polls or surveys. As the course progress, opportunities to
use the information from a previous screen or module will stimulate recall and
reinforce knowledge.
The
fourth instructional event in Gagne’s design is the process of presenting in a
variety of methods – video lectures, readings with links, activities, projects,
discussion boards, wikis, and podcasts (University
of Florida, 2013). Although the theory of constructivism
addresses the understanding that students build upon prior knowledge, it does
not provide the need for what Gagne terms “learning guidance.” This is an
important part of learning and keeps learners from becoming frustrated looking
for information and building upon incorrect facts. The idea that great
men/woman stand on the shoulders of others fits into this model of learning.
One method is to include a rubric for projects and writings. Another way to
address this issue is to encourage interaction with other students in
discussion activities. This method will embrace the learning theory of
connectivism (Stahl, Koschmann, & Suthers, 2006). However, once again, this could lead to misinformation.
Instructors should be available to direct students to online locations to find
information, which alleviates the frustration of searching for applicable and
reliable sources.
The
Sixth step requires a learner to practice and apply knowledge and skills that
have been learned (University
of Florida, 2013). This can be done with writing
assignments, quizzes, projects and activities. A Coursera.org course had
students write short essays that were then graded by peers. This approach
addresses the value of applying information learned, but has the drawback of
peers that may not have understood the information to be learned (either due to
a lack of desire or communication problems such as native language.)
Gagne
sets forth a seventh step, which is to provide feedback to the learner – a
valuable step in learning and correcting errors (University
of Florida, 2013). Timeliness in feedback is encouraging to students and
improves overall communication and concern. Activities that have immediate
answers and feedback built into the program are effective in promoting and
instilling newly learned information. An example of this type of feedback was
instituted in an online course in writing offered from the University of San
Francisco. Passages were presented on the screen with the corrections for more
concise writing. After several examples with the instructor speaking, students
were given the opportunity to try to correct a passage on their own. Immediate
feedback was a screen away, reinforcing the newly learned material. This also
leads into Gagne’s eighth step of assessing performance. Online courses can
include quizzes and short answers that assess success or not. The final step is
to enhance retention and personalize the material learned (University
of Florida, 2013).
Learning
models continue to undergo changes, as education becomes a global reality with
the Internet and competition of universities and online course delivery. Technology offers new ways to meet
those models, but instructors and designers will need to meet the growing trend
with successful courses.
References
Canvas Network. (2013). Social media. Retrieved March 29, 2013, from https://www.canvas.net/courses/social-media
Coursera. (2013). Understanding einstein. Retrieved March 29, 2013,
from https://www.coursera.org/course/einstein
Graff, N. (2011). “An effective and agonizing way to learn”: Backwards
design and new teachers’ preparation for planning curriculum. Teacher Education Quarterly, 38(3),
151-168. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ940642&site=eds-live;
http://www.teqjournal.org/
Horton, W. (2012). E-Learning by Design. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer
Keller, J. (2008). First principles of motivation to learn and
eLearning. Distance Education, 29(2),
175.
Stahl, G., Koschmann, T., & Suthers, D. (2006). Computer supported
collaborative learning :An historical perspective. Cambridge Handbook of
the Learning Sciences (pp. 409–426). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved from http://www.gerrystahl.net/cscl/CSCL_English.pdf
University of Florida. (2013). Gagne’s nine events of instruction.
Retrieved March 29, 2013, from http://citt.ufl.edu/tools/gagnes-9-events-of-instruction/
Van Duzer, J. (2002). Instructional design tips for online learning.
Retrieved March 29, 2013, from http://www.csuchico.edu/tlp/resources/rubric/instructionalDesignTips.pdf
